Shaping Chaining Slides Building New Repetoirs
Systematic Instruction: Shaping and Chaining
Defining Our Tools
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a terminal behavior. Used when the behavior does not yet exist in the student's repertoire.
Focus: Topography, Duration, Latency
Chaining
Linking discrete behaviors to form a complex sequence. Used when the student can do the steps but cannot perform the whole routine.
Focus: Task Analysis, Sequencing
The Shaping Process
1
Define the Terminal Behavior
Precisely describe the final goal in observable, measurable terms.
2
Identify the Initial Approximation
What behavior is the student currently doing that resembles the goal?
3
Differentially Reinforce
Reinforce the new approximation; place previous steps on extinction.
"Shaping is like sculpting with clay—you don't wait for the vase to appear, you refine the lump step-by-step."
Task Analysis (TA)
The Blueprint
Breaking a complex skill into smaller, teachable units. The outcome is a series of Stimulus-Response (S-R) links.
Must be individualized to the student's current skill level.
Steps should be observable and specific.
Include the "natural cue" for each step.
Example: Washing Hands
1.Turn on warm water.
2.Wet hands under stream.
3.Dispense one pump of soap.
4.Rub palms together for 10s.
... (10 more steps)
Selecting a Chaining Strategy
Forward Chaining
Teach step 1 first. Reinforce. Then steps 1 & 2. Great for skills where the first step is easy.
Backward Chaining
Teacher does all steps except the last. Student does step 10. Reinforce. Student contacts natural reinforcement quickly.
Total Task
Prompt the student through the entire sequence every time. Use when student knows most steps but forgets the order.
Skill Breakdown Worksheet Skill Breakdown Worksheet
Advanced Task Analysis & Chaining Design
Clinician:
Date:
Section 1: Target Definition
Terminal Behavior Name:
Operational Definition:
Chaining Choice
Which chaining strategy fits this skill best? Justify your choice based on student profile and skill topography.
Forward
Backward
Total Task
Section 2: The Task Analysis
Identify the natural cue (SD) that triggers the response for each step.
# Natural Discriminative Stimulus (SD) Observable Response Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Section 3: Reinforcement & Mastery
Primary Reinforcement Schedule:
Mastry Criterion (e.g., 3 consecutive sessions):
Error Correction Procedure:
Shaping Protocol Guide Shaping Implementation Protocol
A Clinical Practitioner's Guide to Successive Approximations
Core Objective
To systematically develop a novel behavior by differentially reinforcing incremental steps (approximations) while withholding reinforcement for previously mastered steps.
Pre-Flight Checklist
Terminal behavior operationally defined?
High-potency reinforcer identified?
Data collection system ready?
Environment minimized for distractions?
1
Define the Steps
Don't wing it. List at least 5-7 logical approximations. Be ready to add sub-steps if the student stalls.
"Approximations should be 'close enough' to be likely to occur, but 'far enough' to represent progress."
2
Reinforcement Timing
Reinforce on a FR1 schedule for the current approximation. Use immediate delivery to ensure the correct topography is marked.
"Timing is everything. A 1-second delay can reinforce the wrong muscle movement."
3
Extinction Shift
Once Step 2 is consistent, stop reinforcing Step 1. This "reinforcement of better" and "extinction of old" creates the behavioral drive.
4
Monitor for Stalls
If behavior doesn't emerge after 10-15 trials, go back one step or create an intermediate step (a "slice" of the approximation).
Clinical Troubleshooting
Problem: Regression
Student stops performing even the initial approximation.
Solution: Check reinforcer satiation or increase the value of the reward. Return to FR1 on the easiest step to build momentum.
Problem: "Sticking"
Student gets stuck on one step for too long.
Solution: You stayed on that step too long. Move to a thinner schedule or drop the requirement slightly to find the next approximation.
Problem: Inconsistency
The topography is sloppy or inconsistent.
Solution: Tighten your differential reinforcement. Only reinforce the "best of the best" for 3 trials to sharpen the form.
FCT Mastery Slides Functional Communication Training
The Gold Standard for Replacement Behavior
Mastery Series: Lesson 2
Why FCT Works
Functional Equivalence
The new communication response must serve the exact same function as the challenging behavior.
Efficiency Match
The response must be easier or faster to perform than the challenging behavior.
Goal: Replace the Topography, Keep the Function.
Stages of Implementation
1
Acquisition
• Dense reinforcement (FR1)
• Constant prompting
• Contrived opportunities
2
Fluency
• Prompt fading
• Multiple communicative partners
• Varied environments
3
Schedule Thinning
• Delay to reinforcement
• Introduction of "no" or "wait"
• Generalization probes
Selecting the Modality
Modality selection is a clinical decision based on student ability and environment.
Vocal Speech
Fastest, but requires motor control and imitation.
PECS / Icons
Portable and universally understood, but requires materials.
Signs (ASL)
Always available, but communicative partner must know signs.
The "Modality Rule"
"Never choose a modality that is harder for the student to perform than the behavior you are trying to replace."
Example
If a student bites to get water, don't teach a 5-sign sentence. Teach "Water" or a single tap on a card.
"But they're doing it too much!"
The most common complaint after successful FCT is that the student is now "over-requesting." This is actually success . Schedule thinning is the next step.
Don't put the replacement behavior on extinction! Teach "Wait."
Modality Selection Guide Modality Selection matrix
Clinical Decision-Making for Functional Communication
Learner Profile
Motor dexterity (fine/gross)
Vocal imitation skills
Visual discrimination
Cognitive load
Environment
Listener proficiency
Portability needs
Tech access/charging
Background noise levels
Response Effort
Time to complete response
Strength required
Social conspicuousness
Ease of prompting
Case Scenario A: Leo
Leo (Age 6) engages in self-injury (head-hitting) to escape non-preferred academic tasks. He has strong fine motor skills but limited vocal imitation. He is currently in a general education setting with a 1:1 aide. He picks up new routines quickly but gets frustrated if he isn't understood immediately.
Modality Recommendation:
Justification (Clinical Reasoning):
Case Scenario B: Maya
Maya (Age 14) uses loud screaming to gain attention from staff in a group home. She has significant gross and fine motor delays and cannot reliably isolate her index finger. She has some vocal approximations ("ah" for attention) but they are inconsistent across environments.
Modality Recommendation:
Justification (Clinical Reasoning):
The "Switch" Decision
In what scenario would you recommend a "layered" approach (e.g., both signs and an iPad)? What are the risks of using too many modalities simultaneously during the acquisition phase?
FCT Implementation Checklist FCT Implementation Fidelity
Supervisor Observation Tool
Fidelity Score
___ / 20
Practitioner
Observer
Date/Time
Part I: Environmental Preparation Prior to Trial Commencement
<table class="w-full"><tbody><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">1. Communicative modality (icons, device, etc.) is within arm's reach of learner.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">2. Identified functional reinforcer is available and confirmed potent.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">3. Distractions in immediate environment are minimized for acquisition phase.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr></tbody></table>
Part II: Trial-By-Trial Implementation Execution Fidelity
<table class="w-full"><tbody><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">4. Practitioner contrives or captures a "Motivation Operation" (MO).</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">5. Practitioner provides prompt immediately upon sensing behavior onset (Zero-delay).</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">6. Prompt used is consistent with the prescribed prompting hierarchy.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">7. Reinforcement delivered within < 1 second of correct communicative response.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">8. Practitioner uses differential reinforcement (stronger for independent vs. prompted).</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr></tbody></table>
Part III: Management of Challenging Behavior Extinction Fidelity
<table class="w-full"><tbody><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">9. Challenging behavior (the target for replacement) is placed on extinction.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr><tr class="border-b border-slate-50"><td class="py-3 pr-4 text-sm text-slate-600">10. No vocal or physical attention provided to the maladaptive topography.</td><td class="py-3 w-12 text-center font-bold text-slate-300">Y / N</td></tr></tbody></table>
Clinical Notes & Recommendations
DTT Essentials Slides Discrete Trial Training
High-Fidelity Implementation of the 3-Term Contingency
Mastery Series: Lesson 3
Anatomy of a Discrete Trial
1. SD
Discriminative Stimulus
2. Response
The Learner's Action
3. Consequence
SR+ or Error Correction
The Forgotten Component: The ITI
The Inter-Trial Interval (usually 3-5 seconds) is critical. It allows the learner to consume the reinforcer and provides a clear separation between trials.
Prompting Hierarchies
Most-to-Least (MTL)
Start with the highest level of support (Full Physical) and fade as the learner meets criteria.
Primary Goal: Errorless Learning.
1. Full Physical
2. Partial Physical
3. Model
4. Gesture
Least-to-Most (LTM)
Provide the opportunity for independence first, then increase support only if the learner fails.
Primary Goal: Assessing Current Skill.
1. Independent
2. Gesture
3. Model
4. Full Prompt
Effective Error Correction
01
End & Feedback
Stop the trial immediately. Provide neutral feedback (e.g., "Not quite").
02
Represent SD & Prompt
Immediately represent the SD and provide a controlling prompt for a correct response.
03
Transfer Trial
Represent the SD again, fading the prompt to see if the learner can now perform it.
04
Distractor & Reinforcement
Run an easy 'mastered' trial, then return to the target. Provide social praise, no tangible.
Clinical Pitfalls
Prompt Dependency
Failing to fade prompts quickly enough, leading to a student who only responds when supported.
Inadvertent Cues
Glancing at the correct card or leaning toward the right response before the student answers.
Slow Pace
Too much time between trials, allowing the learner's attention to drift away from the lesson.
Weak Reinforcement
Using "Good Job" for the 50th time when the student is bored of the activity.
Trial Data Sheet DTT Trial Data Sheet
SIMULATION & CLINICAL PRACTICE TOOL
Student: ________
Date: ________
Session: ________
Clinician: ________
Target Skill (Terminal Behavior)
Prompt Hierarchy
FP PP M G I
Trial Discriminative Stimulus (SD) Prompt Level Response Outcome 1 C E P 2 C E P 3 C E P 4 C E P 5 C E P 6 C E P 7 C E P 8 C E P 9 C E P 10 C E P
Session Analysis
Total Independent: _____
Total Correct: _____
% Independent: _____
Criteria Met: Y / N
Prompt Fading Plan Error Correction Cheat Sheet Error Correction Mastery
The Practitioner's High-Fidelity Flowchart
Clinical Tool
Present SD
Correct Response
Immediate Reinforcement (SR+). Clear the table. Start ITI.
Incorrect Response
End the trial neutrally. Remove materials briefly.
The 4-Step Correction Loop (ECTR)
E
Error Feedback
"Wait." or "Not that one." (Neutral)
C
Correction
Represent SD + Controlling Prompt.
T
Transfer
Represent SD + Less/No Prompt.
R
Reinforce
Social Praise ONLY. No Tangible.
Expansion Trial (The Distractor)
After the transfer trial, run 1-2 trials of already mastered skills. This ensures the learner isn't just repeating the last motor movement but is actually attending to the SD. Then, return to the target trial and reinforce independence.
Prompt Types
FP: Hand-over-hand
PP: Elbow/Wrist touch
M: Teacher demonstrates
G: Pointing or nodding
Wait Times
ITI: 3-5 seconds
Latency: 3 seconds max
MTL: 0-second delay
Pro Tip
"If they error on the Transfer Trial, you didn't prompt enough on the Correction Trial. Use a more intrusive prompt."
Naturalistic Teaching Slides Beyond the Table
Naturalistic & Incidental Teaching Strategies
Mastery Series: Lesson 4
Instructional Paradigms
Discrete Trial (DTT)
Teacher-led and structured
Contrived reinforcers
High repetition/trials
Environment is distraction-free
Naturalistic (NET)
Student-led and fluid
Natural/Functional reinforcers
Trials occur as MO emerges
Environment is the real world
The Incidental Teaching Cycle
01
Arrange the Environment
Put preferred items out of reach but in sight. Limit access to create a "need."
02
Wait for the Initiation
The learner must show interest (looking, reaching, gesturing). Don't jump in first.
03
Request Elaborations
Prompt for the target behavior (e.g., "What do you need?" or "Point to it").
04
Reinforce with Access
Immediately provide the item the learner requested. The reward is the item itself.
The Art of Contriving MOs
Interrupted Chain
Wait until a student is mid-routine (e.g., coloring), then take the marker away. Prompt "Help" or "Marker."
Missing Items
Give a bowl of cereal but no spoon. Give a coloring sheet but no crayons. Forces a request.
Visibility/Access
Preferred toys on high shelves. Snacks in clear, hard-to-open containers. Creates an SD for manding.
"The goal isn't to be mean—it's to create a social world where communication is the only way to get what you want."
Data Collection Challenges
Unlike DTT, you can't predict when a trial will happen. How do we track fidelity?
Frequency Counts
Duration Data
Trials-to-Criterion
Capture vs. Contrive
Capture: You see a student looking at the cookies. You run a trial.
Contrive: You hide the cookies. You wait for the student to look for them. You run a trial.
Which leads to faster generalization? (Discussion Topic)
Incidental Teaching Planner Incidental Teaching Planner
Environmental Sabotage & Contrivance Design
Naturalistic Focus
Target Replacement Skill
e.g., Requesting help, Manding for items, Social greeting...
Natural Environment / Setting
e.g., Free Play, Cafeteria, Inclusive PE...
The Contrivance Logic
"How can you make the target skill the easiest and only way for the student to access what they want in this setting?"
Section 2: The Setup
Technique
Environmental Sabotage
Interrupted chain or missing items.
Specific Action Plan
Technique
Inaccessible / Visual
Items in sight but out of reach.
Specific Action Plan
Technique
Communication Temptation
Doing something "silly" or unexpected.
Specific Action Plan
Section 3: Response Management
Expected Initiation (SD for Teacher)
What will the student do to show they are motivated?
Prompting Hierarchy (Least-to-Most)
How will you escalate support if they don't respond?
Natural Reinforcer Description
Naturalistic Capture Log Naturalistic Capture Log
Real-World Skill Acquisition Tracker
Clinician
Use this log to record "captured" trials where the student initiates a replacement behavior in the natural environment. Record the setting, the level of prompting needed, and whether the natural reinforcer was delivered.
Date/Time Setting / Context Target Behavior Prompt Level Natural SR+? / IND GES MOD FUL Y / N / IND GES MOD FUL Y / N / IND GES MOD FUL Y / N / IND GES MOD FUL Y / N / IND GES MOD FUL Y / N
Barriers to Independence
e.g., Listener didn't respond, prompt was too slow...
Generalization Progress
Note any new settings or people where the skill occurred.
Generalization Mastery Slides The Final Phase
Generalization & Maintenance Mastery
Ending the "Train and Hope" Fallacy
Stokes & Baer (1977)
Generalization is not a passive byproduct of teaching. It is a clinical outcome that must be programmed.
The "Train & Hope" Fallacy
Teaching a skill in one setting with one teacher and simply "hoping" it shows up elsewhere.
Setting Generalization
Across environments (School, Home, Community).
Response Generalization
Functional variations (Saying "Hi", "Hello", or waving).
Maintenance
Across time (Skill persists after training ends).
Strategic Programming
1. Train Sufficient Exemplars
Teach the skill using different people, different chairs, different times of day, and different phrasing.
2. Program Common Stimuli
Bring elements of the natural environment into the training room (e.g., use the same desk or noise level as the regular classroom).
3. Train Loosely
Vary non-critical aspects of the SD. Don't always sit in the same spot or use the same tone of voice.
4. Indiscriminable Contingencies
Move to Intermittent Reinforcement (VR schedules) so the learner doesn't know when the reward is coming.
Programming for Maintenance
"A skill is only useful if it survives the transition from the practitioner to the natural community of reinforcement."
1
Thin the reinforcement schedule until it matches the natural environment.
2
Transfer control to naturally occurring SDs and social reinforcers.
3
Conduct periodic maintenance probes (e.g., Weekly -> Monthly -> Quarterly).
Capstone Task
Design a comprehensive Generalization & Maintenance plan for a replacement behavior of your choice. Ensure it includes at least 3 distinct generalization strategies and a 6-month maintenance schedule.
Programming for Permanence Protocol Programming for Permanence
Generalization & Maintenance Protocol
Clinical Capstone
Section I: Target Behavior Foundation
Learner/Client Initials:
Terminal Replacement Behavior:
Current Acquisition Setting:
Target Natural Environment:
Section II: Generalization Programming
Train Sufficient Exemplars
PEOPLE / SETTINGS
Specify at least 3 distinct variations (different teachers, rooms, or stimuli) you will use during training.
Detailed implementation plan...
Program Common Stimuli
PHYSICAL CUES
Identify a stimulus from the natural environment (e.g., a specific visual aid) that will be present in both training and terminal settings.
Detailed implementation plan...
Indiscriminable Contingencies
SCHEDULE THINNING
Describe how you will move from Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) to an Intermittent Schedule (e.g., VR-3).
Detailed implementation plan...
Section III: Maintenance Programming
Maintenance Probe Schedule
How often will you assess the skill after active teaching has ceased? (e.g., 2 weeks post-mastery, 4 weeks, etc.)
Probe 1
Probe 2
Probe 3
Probe 4
Maintenance Tracking Log Skill Maintenance Log
Long-Term Clinical Surveillance
Mastery Status
Post-Acquisition
Target Skill Description
Mastery Date
Primary Reinforcer
Probe Protocol
Conduct maintenance probes without prompting and under natural reinforcement schedules . If the learner fails a probe, return to a dense reinforcement schedule for 3 sessions before re-probing.
Probe Interval Date of Probe Outcome / Notes Independent? 2 Weeks PASS / FAIL 1 Month PASS / FAIL 3 Months PASS / FAIL 6 Months PASS / FAIL 1 Year PASS / FAIL
Regression Recovery Plan
If failure occurs at any interval, specify the re-training procedure below.