Science Mastery Study Guide
E328 Comprehensive Review
Chapter 7: Earth and Space Science
Domain I: ESS2 Earth Systems & Surface Change
I. Earth Materials & Layered Structure (ESS2.A)
Internal Geothermal Architecture
Earth Interior Cross-Section
Crust (11–32 km) Mantle (~2,870 km) Liquid Outer Core (Fe/Ni) Generates Magnetic Field Solid Inner
Crust: Thin rigid outer shell (11 to 32 km thick) fractured into 7 major tectonic plates in slow continuous drift.
Mantle: Extends to ~2,870 km depth. Dense silicate rock where earthquake seismic waves travel faster than in the crust.
Core: Liquid outer core (molten iron/nickel) rotates to create electric currents generating Earth's magnetic field; surrounds the solid inner core.
The Four Interacting Earth Spheres Powered by Solar & Geothermal Energy
Atmosphere Envelope: 78% N₂, 21% O₂, 0.04% CO₂. Lowest tier = Troposphere (~11.2 km; weather zone).
Geosphere Also called the pedosphere: all terrestrial continental crust, oceanic basins, rocky mantle, and minerals.
Hydrosphere All planetary water reservoirs (seas, lakes, groundwater). ~97% is salt water.
Biosphere Every ecological zone hosting living organisms across land, ocean depths, and atmosphere.
II. Plate Tectonics & Surface Dynamics (ESS2.B)
Alfred Wegener (1912) • Pangaea
Mantle Convection & Subduction
Hot Magma Rises Trench Volcano
Convection Engine: Heat from radioactive decay melts rock into magma. Hot, less dense magma rises, cools near crust, turns denser, and descends in a loop driving continental plates.
Wegener's Evidence: Identical coastal fossils and rock stratigraphy in Africa and South America.
Boundary Collisions & Hazards: • Mountains: Slow uplift where plates collide.
• Volcanoes: Magma erupts at subduction trenches (magma underground; lava on surface).
• Earthquakes: Elastic energy release from locked colliding plates.
• Tsunamis: Vast marine seismic waves from ocean-floor dislocations.
III. Weathering, Erosion, Ocean Currents & Weather (ESS2.C, ESS2.D)
Exogenic Dynamics
Weathering vs. Erosion
• Weathering: Breaking down and loosening rock in place.
Chemical: Acid rain, oxidation.
Mechanical: Ice wedging, root leverage, wind abrasion.
• Erosion: Physical detachment and transport of debris by wind, water, or ice.
Ocean Circulation
Currents are powered by solar thermal energy, convection, and density.
Equatorial water warms and flows poleward; cold, salty, polar water turns denser and sinks, pulling warm water forward in a global conveyor.
Atmospheric Meteorology
• Weather = current state; Climate = multi-year average.
• Tools: Barometer (pressure), Anemometer (wind speed), Radiosondes (balloon telemetry).
• Hurricanes: Fueled by warm ocean evaporation convection.
E328 Science Mastery Study Guide Page 1 of 5 • Earth and Space Science
E328 Comprehensive Review
Chapter 8: The Cosmos
Domain II: ESS1 Universe, Stars & Orbital Mechanics
I. Cosmic Origins & Stellar Lifecycle (ESS1)
13.8 Billion Years Ago
The Big Bang Theory The universe originated ~13.8 billion years ago from an explosive expansion of hot, dense matter.
1. Galaxy Expansion: Distant galaxies rapidly move apart (redshift).
2. Cosmic Microwave Background: Faint measurable uniform background radiation.
• Light-year: Distance light travels in one year (distance unit).
• Our home galaxy is the spiral-shaped Milky Way.
The Sun: Our Closest Star The Sun is an average star in size and luminosity, appearing largest only due to proximity. Powers via nuclear fusion converting hydrogen into helium fuel.
Sun Life Cycle Stages (5 Billion Year Arc)
Current Sun +5 Ga Red Giant White Dwarf Black Cinder
II. Celestial Mechanics, Orbital Geometry & Natural Climate
Earth-Moon-Sun Geometry
Earth 23.5° Tilt & Seasons
Sun N Northern Summer (Tilted toward Sun) N Northern Winter (Tilted away)
Day & Night (Rotation) Earth spins on its axis counterclockwise / easterly once every 24 hours.
Seasons (Revolution & Tilt) Caused by Earth's 23.5-degree tilt as it revolves, altering the angle/concentration of solar rays.
Ocean Tides Driven primarily by the Moon's gravitational pull on oceans; the Sun exerts a secondary influence.
Milankovitch Cycles Multi-millennial climate change caused by: axial wobble, eccentricity (orbit shape), and axial tilt variations.
III. Solar System Architecture & Space Exploration
Planetary & Aerospace Science
Inner Rocky (Terrestrial) Asteroid Belt Outer Gaseous (Jovian) Dwarf
Mercury Venus Earth Mars | Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune | Pluto
The Moon & Surface Features: Orbits Earth every 28 days. Surface features include impact basins flooded by ancient basaltic lava flows known as maria (lunar "seas").
Space Missions & Technologies: • Probes: Voyager 1 & 2, Hubble Space Telescope (HST).
• Shuttle: 1st reusable system (retired 2011).
• Mars/Future: Space Launch System (SLS) & Orion MPCV; ISS human microgravity trials.
E328 Science Mastery Study Guide Page 2 of 5 • The Cosmos & Astronomy
E328 Comprehensive Review
Chapters 9 & 10: Living Systems & Anatomy
Domain III: LS1, LS2, LS4 Cell Biology, Ecology & Human Body
Ch 9: Cellular Architecture, Energetics & Ecology
8 Characteristics of Life
Cell Comparison
Prokaryote (No Nucleus) DNA Eukaryote (Nucleus)
Cellular Hierarchy & Organelles Made of protoplasm (C, H, O).
• Nucleus: Stores DNA in genes & chromosomes.
• Mitochondria: Powerhouse producing ATP.
• Hierarchy: Cell → Tissue → Organ → System.
Photosynthesis & Mass Origin
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Solar → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Mass of a tree comes from CO₂, not soil minerals! Cellular respiration breaks carbs with O₂.
Trophic Chains & Decomposers: Producers → Primary → Secondary Consumers. Decomposers (bacteria, fungi, worms) recycle minerals back to soil.
Evolution & Natural Selection: Beneficial variations enhance survival fitness. Evidenced by transitional fossils (e.g. Archaeopteryx). Ocean acidification from CO₂ impairs coral exoskeletons.
The 6 Modern Kingdoms: Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia. Angiosperms: Most advanced flowering plants (sexual & asexual).
Ch 10: The Seven Major Human Organ Systems
Physiological Structure & Function Matrix
| System | Primary Structures | Physiological Function & Critical High-Yield Exam Notes |
|---|
| Digestive | Mouth, stomach, small/large intestines, liver | Breaks food nutrients into metabolic energy (fuel) and proteins for cellular growth. |
| Skeletal-Muscular | Bones, joints (ligaments), tendons, muscles | Bones support, protect organs, store minerals, and produce red blood cells. Skeletal muscles are voluntary, attached by tendons; smooth/cardiac are involuntary. |
| Respiratory | Diaphragm, windpipe, lungs, air sacs (alveoli), capillaries | Supplies O₂ for cellular respiration; expels CO₂. Gas exchange diffuses across thin walls of air sacs and capillaries. |
| Nervous | Brain, spinal cord, nerve cells, sensory receptors | Transmits impulses (chemical-electrical). Somatic (voluntary) vs. Autonomic (involuntary). Reflexes are automatic, processed at spinal cord without brain. |
| Excretory | Kidneys, skin, lungs, large intestine, liver | Rids body of waste: Kidneys filter blood to urine; Skin expels sweat (urea/salts); Lungs expel CO₂; Liver detoxifies & forms urea. |
| Circulatory | 4-chamber heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood | Dual-pump: Arteries carry blood away; veins return it. RBCs (hemoglobin) carry O₂/CO₂; WBCs fight infection; Platelets clot. |
| Reproductive | Testes, ovaries, uterus, oviducts, placenta | Produces gametes (23 chromosomes each). Fertilization yields diploid zygote (46 chromosomes). Heredity transmitted via genes on chromosomes. |
E328 Science Mastery Study Guide Page 3 of 5 • Living Systems & Anatomy
E328 Comprehensive Review
Chapters 11 & 12: Matter, Forces & Energy
Domain IV: PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4 Physical Science Foundations
Ch 11.I: Matter & Atomic Architecture (PS1)
Law of Conservation of Matter
Atomic Model
P⁺ N⁰ e⁻ Nucleus & Valence Shells
Kinetic Molecular Theory Matter occupies space and has mass. Particles constantly vibrate. Governs phase changes: Solid, Liquid, Gas via thermal motion, expansion, contraction.
Atomic Subparticles • Atomic Number = Protons.
• Weight = Protons + Neutrons.
• Isotopes: Same element, varying neutron count.
Substance Hierarchy • Element: Cannot be simplified (C).
• Compound: Chemically bonded (H₂O).
• Mixture: Physically separable (air, soil).
Law: Matter cannot be created/destroyed.
Ch 11.II: Mechanics, Newton's Laws & Universal Gravitation (PS2)
F = MA • Inverse Square Law
Kinematics • Speed: Distance / time.
• Velocity: Speed with direction.
• Acceleration: Rate of velocity change over time.
1st & 2nd Laws • 1st (Inertia): Rest/velocity remains constant unless unbalanced force acts.
• 2nd (F = MA): Acceleration is proportional to force, inverse to mass.
3rd Law (Action/Reaction) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction exerted by the second body on the first.
Universal Gravitation & Weight Attractive pull directly proportional to mass product; inversely proportional to distance squared (1/d²). Mass is constant; Weight is gravitational force on mass.
Ch 12: Energy Transformations, Waves, Electricity & Optics (PS3, PS4)
PE = mgh • KE = ½mv²
Wave Anatomy
Wavelength (λ) Amp Sound = Longitudinal | Light = Transverse
Series vs. Parallel
Series (1 Path) Parallel (Branches)
Lenses & Refraction
Convex (Converges) Concave (Disperses)
Electrical Energy • Static (charge discharge) vs. Current (electron flow).
• Conductors (Cu) vs. Insulators (wood).
• Generators: motion → current.
• Motors: current → motion.
Sound Energy • Compressions & rarefactions.
• Requires medium; no vacuum travel!
• Loudness = Amplitude (dB).
• Pitch = Frequency (Hz).
Light Energy • Wave speed: 300,000 km/s (traverses vacuum).
• Reflection (bounce) vs. Refraction (bending).
• Prism disperses wavelengths.
• Color = reflected wavelength.
Heat Energy • Flows from warm to cool.
• Temperature: average internal molecular kinetic energy.
• Calorie: Heat to raise 1g H₂O by 1°C. Mass-energy: \(E = mc^2\).
E328 Science Mastery Study Guide Page 4 of 5 • Matter, Motion & Energy
Final Exam Quick Reference
E328 Master Science Cheat Sheet
Chapters 7 – 12 High-Yield Memory Matrix
⚡ Essential Mathematical Formulas & Scientific Laws Must-Memorize Equations
F = m · a
F m a
F_g ∝ (m₁ · m₂) / d² Gravity drops exponentially with square of distance.
PE = mgh | KE = ½mv² Potential (height) vs. Kinetic (motion velocity squared).
Work = Force · Distance Work requires object to physically displace.
E = mc² Mass is concentrated energy (Conservation of mass-energy).
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ Photosynthesis: Dry plant mass derives from atmospheric carbon dioxide!
⚠️ Critical Distinctions: Do Not Confuse On The Exam! High-Frequency Traps
⚖️ Key Distinction: Matter vs. Mass vs. Weight Frequently Tested Triple Concept
1. Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass. The physical material substance of the universe (solids, liquids, gases).
2. Mass The actual quantity of matter in an object. Measured in kg or g. Invariant: stays identical everywhere (Earth, Moon, outer space).
3. Weight The downward gravitational force exerted on mass (\(W = mg\)). Variable: changes with local gravity (e.g., 1/6th weight on Moon).
Magma vs. Lava: Magma is underground in mantle/crust; Lava has erupted onto Earth's surface.
Weathering vs. Erosion: Weathering breaks in place (chemical/mechanical); Erosion transports sediment away.
Rotation vs. Revolution: Rotation = spin on axis (24 hrs → Day/Night); Revolution = orbit with 23.5° tilt (365 days → Seasons).
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Prokaryotes lack defined nucleus (bacteria); Eukaryotes have nucleus (plants/animals).
Speed vs. Velocity: Speed is scalar (\(d/t\)); Velocity includes direction. Acceleration is rate of velocity change.
Sound vs. Light Waves: Sound REQUIRES a medium (no vacuum); Light travels through a vacuum at 300,000 km/s.
Series vs. Parallel Circuits: Series = 1 path (one break cuts all); Parallel = branches (one break leaves other paths lit).
Convex vs. Concave Lens: Convex converges rays inward (thicker middle); Concave disperses rays outward (thinner middle).
Key Numerical Values
- • 13.8 Billion Yrs: Age of Universe.
- • 5 Billion Yrs: Sun becomes Red Giant.
- • 23.5°: Earth's axial tilt (Seasons).
- • 24 hrs / 28 days: Day / Moon orbit.
- • 78% N₂, 21% O₂, 0.04% CO₂: Air.
- • 97%: Earth water in oceans.
- • 300,000 km/s: Speed of light.
- • 23 chromosomes: Gamete haploid set.
Scientific Instrumentation
- • Barometer: Atmospheric pressure.
- • Anemometer: Wind speed.
- • Radiosonde: Weather balloons.
- • Voyager 1 & 2: Deep space probes.
- • Hubble (HST): Orbital telescope.
- • Shuttle: Reusable orbiter (1981-2011).
- • SLS & Orion: Mars/deep space craft.
- • ISS: Prolonged microgravity lab.
Classifications & Taxa
The 6 Kingdoms:
Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
8 Planets in Solar Order:
Inner: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
Outer: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
Angiosperms: Advanced flowering plants with root, stem, leaf systems.
E328 Science Mastery Study Guide Page 5 of 5 • Rapid-Recall Exam Cheat Sheet
