Definition Game Slides Clause Connections
Defining & Non-Defining Relative Clauses in Academic Writing
Advanced ESL Grammar for Synthesis
The Definition Game
Can you define a complex academic term in exactly one sentence?
The Rule:
Your sentence must contain a relative clause (who, which, that, where, whose).
Example:
"Photosynthesis is the biological process that converts light energy into chemical energy."
Algorithm
Metaphor
Sustainable
Variable
Defining Clauses
Essential Information
These clauses identify exactly which person or thing we are talking about. Without them, the sentence loses its core meaning.
No commas are used around the clause.
We can use "that" for things.
Academic Examples
The researcher who published the study won an award.
(Which researcher? Specifically the one who published.)
The method that they used was innovative.
Non-Defining Clauses
Extra Information
These clauses add supplementary details to a noun that is already identified. Removing it doesn't change the basic identity.
MUST use commas on both sides of the clause.
Never use "that" in these clauses.
Academic Examples
Einstein, who developed the theory of relativity, was a physicist.
(We already know which Einstein!)
Einstein, that developed...
Error: Use "who"
Sentential "Which"
Sometimes, "which" refers to the entire idea of the previous sentence, not just one noun.
"The data showed a significant increase in usage, which surprised the researchers."
Does 'which' refer to usage? No. It refers to the fact that there was a significant increase.
Always requires a comma!
Challenge: Spot the Difference
How does the meaning change with commas?
Sentence A
The students who studied for the exam passed.
Sentence B
The students, who studied for the exam, passed.
A: Only a specific group passed (the studious ones).
Defining Terms Worksheet Defining Terms
Relative Clauses in Academic Contexts
Name:
Date:
1
Identification & Punctuation
Read the sentences below. Decide if the relative clause is Defining (D) or Non-Defining (ND). Add commas where necessary.
The methodology ________ was used in this study ________ has been criticized for being too narrow.
Relative clause: which was used in this study
Dr. Aris ________ who leads the research team ________ announced the findings yesterday.
Relative clause: who leads the research team
The participants ________ that completed the survey ________ were given a small stipend.
Relative clause: that completed the survey
Statistics ________ which many students find difficult ________ is a required course for this degree.
Relative clause: which many students find difficult
2
Combining for Synthesis
Combine the two sentences into one single sentence using a relative clause. Decide if the information is essential or extra and punctuate accordingly.
1. The hypothesis was eventually rejected. It proposed that sleep deprivation improves focus.
2. Qualitative research allows for deep exploration of human behavior. It is often time-consuming.
3. Students often struggle with academic writing. Their first language is not English.
3
The Academic Definition
Choose a term from your field of study. Write a formal definition that includes a Defining Relative Clause .
Term:
Definition:
Condensing Clauses Slides Academic Density
Mastering Reduced Relative Clauses
Lesson 2 Conciseness & Flow
The Word Count War
In academic publishing, space is premium.
"The study which was conducted by Smith (2020) focused on students who were attending rural colleges."
Can we make this 30% shorter?
The Solution:
"The study conducted by Smith (2020) focused on students attending rural colleges."
Original
18 words
Reduced
14 words
Active Reduction
When the relative clause is in the active voice, we use the Present Participle (-ing).
Full Clause
Researchers who study climate change...
Reduced Phrase
Researchers studying climate change...
Important: You remove the relative pronoun (who/which/that) and the auxiliary "be" if present.
Passive Reduction
When the relative clause is in the passive voice, we use the Past Participle (-ed/V3).
Full Clause
The evidence which was presented in court...
Reduced Phrase
The evidence presented in court...
This is the most common reduction in literature reviews when citing methods and results.
The Golden Rules
1
Subject of the clause MUST be the same as the pronoun.
2
No reduction if the pronoun is followed by a modal (can, might, will).
Example of Failure:
"The students whom I taught were brilliant."
Cannot Reduce!
(The pronoun "whom" refers to students, but the subject of the clause is "I".)
Master Practice
Reduce these academic sentences in your head:
1. "The software which is available for free lacks advanced features."
2. "Participants who were wishing to withdraw could do so at any time."
3. "This theory, which was first proposed in 1920, is still relevant."
Conciseness Challenge Worksheet The Conciseness Challenge
Mastering Participle Phrases in Academic Writing
Name:
1
Active vs. Passive Reduction
Convert the following full relative clauses into reduced participle phrases. Indicate if the original was Active (A) or Passive (P).
Example: The study which was published in 2022...
The study published in 2022...
1. Individuals who are seeking asylum must follow strict protocols.
2. The materials that were provided by the university were insufficient.
3. Researchers who study neurological disorders often use MRI scans.
2
The Word Count War
Rewrite the following paragraph. Use reduced relative clauses wherever possible to lower the word count without losing any information.
"The primary data which were collected during the first phase of the project indicated a trend. This trend, which was observed among teenagers who were living in urban areas, suggested that technology which is used for social interaction can increase anxiety. Factors which are contributing to this include the constant need for validation which is sought through likes and comments."
Current Count: 68 words
Target: < 50 words
3
Grammatical Constraints
Circle the relative clause in each sentence. If it cannot be reduced, explain why based on the "Golden Rules."
1. The data that you analyzed yesterday is missing a column.
2. Any student who might need an extension should contact the professor.
Reported Speech Slides Voices of Research
Mastering Reported Speech & Backshifting
Lesson 3 Source Integration
The Academic Echo
How do we transform a moment in time into an eternal record?
The Quote (1963):
"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation..."
The Report:
King (1963) declared that he had a dream that his children would one day live in a more equitable nation.
What changed? Why?
The Backshift Rule
When the reporting verb is in the past (e.g., said, found), the verb in the reported speech moves one step back in time.
Present Simple
Past Simple
"It is..." → "...it was."
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
"I have seen..." → "...he had seen."
Will / Can
Would / Could
"We will..." → "...they would."
When NOT to Backshift
1. Universal Truths
If the statement is still true or a known fact, you can keep the present tense.
"Einstein found that E equals MC squared."
2. Current Beliefs
If you want to signal that the researcher still holds this opinion today.
"The author states that more research is needed."
Past or Present?
Past Tense
For specific studies/acts in the past.
Common in APA style for results.
"Smith (2019) conducted..."
Present Tense
For ongoing theories/knowledge.
Common in humanities/MLA.
"Jones argues that..."
Quick Check
Convert this direct quote into a literature review sentence:
"The sample size is too small to draw conclusions."
— Researcher Lee (2021)
Lee (2021) concluded that the sample size was too small...
Reporting Research Worksheet Reporting Research
The Mechanics of Source Integration
Name:
1
Backshifting Mechanics
Complete the table by backshifting the direct quote into reported speech. Use "The author stated that..." as your reporting phrase.
Direct Quote Reported Speech "The results are conclusive." The author stated that the results were conclusive. "We have completed the trial." "The team will publish the data."
|
| "I analyzed the samples last week." |
|
| "Participants can withdraw at any time." |
|
2
Transforming Quotes to Reports
Rewrite the following direct quotes as reported speech suitable for a literature review. Pay attention to pronouns and tenses . Use the researcher's name provided.
"I found that the existing laws do not protect intellectual property in the digital age."
— Dr. Chen (2018)
"We are currently observing a shift in global weather patterns that will affect crop yields."
— Prof. Silva (2023)
"My colleagues and I have been developing this vaccine for over a decade."
— Dr. Gupta (2020)
3
The "Truth" Challenge
Explain why we might not backshift the verb in the following sentence, even if the reporting verb is in the past.
"Copernicus reported that the Earth revolves around the sun."
Your Explanation:
Nuance Reporting Slides The Power of Choice
Mastering Nuance in Reporting Verbs
Lesson 4 Author Stance
Vibe Check
🤔
Tentative
"suggests"
😤
Strong
"insists"
🤨
Critical
"claims"
Academic writing is never neutral. Every verb choice tells a story.
The Stance Spectrum
Tentative Strong / Certain
Suggests Proposes Argues Asserts Contends Demonstrates
Agreement / Alignment
You agree with the source or the evidence is strong.
Confirms Proves Notes
Distance / Doubt
You are questioning the source or being cautious.
Claims Alleges Implies
Changing the Narrative
Base Fact:
"Miller (2021) found that the policy was ineffective."
Shift to Doubt:
"Miller (2021) claimed that the policy was ineffective."
(Implies Miller might be wrong.)
Shift to Impact:
"Miller (2021) demonstrated that the policy was ineffective."
(Signals that the evidence is solid.)
Dangerous Verbs
"insinuated" / "hinted" / "alluded"
These verbs suggest that the author is being unclear, indirect, or even sneaky. Use them very carefully in academic writing!
Avoid if the author stated it explicitly.
Use if you are critiquing a subtle bias.
Proceed with caution
Choice Challenge
Which verb creates the most skeptical tone?
argues
contends
posits
purports
Answer: purports. It suggests the author is making a claim that is likely false or unverifiable.
Stance Lab Activity The Stance Lab
Strategic Verb Choice for Academic Authority
Name:
1
Sorting the Spectrum
Place the following reporting verbs into the correct category based on the level of certainty or attitude they convey.
argues • suggests • claims • demonstrates • alleges • insists • posits • purports • concludes • tentatively proposes
Tentative / Cautious
Strong / Definitive
Critical / Skeptical
2
Changing the Narrative
Rewrite the original sentence twice to change the author's stance as instructed.
Original: "Researcher X (2020) stated that the new drug is safe for children."
Tone: Caution
Example: Researcher X (2020) suggested that...
Tone: Doubt
Tone: Proof
3
Critical Application
Read the context and choose the most appropriate reporting verb. Briefly justify your choice.
Context: You are writing a literature review. You find a study that has some flaws in its methodology, but the conclusion seems plausible.
"Wang (2019) ___________ that the sample group responded positively to the treatment."
Verb Choice:
Justification:
Synthesis Masterclass Slides The Synthesis Masterclass
Weaving Sources into a Scholarly Conversation
Capstone Project Workshop
The Anatomy of Synthesis
"While Smith (2019) argues that remote work improves productivity, Jones (2020) suggests a more nuanced view. Smith's data, which were collected during a period of growth, indicate high morale. However, researchers studying long-term trends have found that social isolation can mitigate these benefits (Brown, 2021)."
Reported Speech / Verbs
Relative Clauses (Defining/Reduced)
The Scholarly Switch
The Summary List
"Author A says X. Author B says Y. Author C says Z."
Disconnected. Boring. Low impact.
The Synthesis
"Author A's claim that X is supported by Author B, although Author C disagrees."
Dynamic. Analytical. Expert tone.
The Flow Factor
Use relative clauses to bridge the gap between authors without starting new, choppy sentences.
"Miller (2018) conducted a study which proved that sleep impacts memory. This finding is similar to a later report published by Sato (2020)."
Defining Clause:
"...a study that utilized MRI scans..."
Reduced Clause:
"...a study utilizing MRI scans..."
Managing Authority
Your paragraph should show your voice through how you group others.
Strategic Verbs:
• "In contrast to..."
• "Expanding upon..."
• "While X claims..."
• "Y provides evidence for..."
The "Conversation" Layout
POINT 1 (Topic Sentence)
Author A (Supporting)
Author B (Nuancing)
Author C (Opposing)
YOUR SYNTHESIS / CONCLUSION
Peer Feedback Goals
Grammar
Are reported speech tenses backshifted correctly?
Conciseness
Could full relative clauses be reduced to phrases?
Nuance
Does the verb choice reflect the author's stance accurately?
Mini Lit Review Project Mini-Lit Review Project
The Capstone Challenge: Synthesizing the Conversation
Name:
1
Research Sources
Source A: Miller & Zhang (2021)
"Our data show that 80% of students who use digital flashcards perform better on exams. We believe this is due to the spaced repetition algorithms that these apps use."
Source B: Rodriguez (2022)
"Flashcards are helpful, but only for memorizing isolated facts. Students who rely on flashcards often struggle with complex problem-solving that requires deep synthesis."
Source C: Thompson (2023)
"A pilot study utilizing AI-driven flashcards showed no significant difference in exam scores. This suggests that the quality of the flashcards is more important than the digital platform."
2
Synthesis Map
Connection / Conflict
How do Miller and Rodriguez disagree?
Nuance / Limitation
What does Thompson add to the debate?
3
Your Synthesis Paragraph
Requirements:
At least 2 Relative Clauses
Use Reported Speech (Backshifting)
Use 3 different Nuanced Verbs
Integrate all 3 sources
Start writing here...
Synthesis Peer Review Form Synthesis Peer Review
Evaluating the Scholarly Conversation
Author:
Reviewer:
Instructions: Read your partner's synthesis paragraph. Use this checklist to provide specific, constructive feedback on their use of the linguistic tools covered in this sequence.
Grammatical Mechanics
1. Are defining relative clauses punctuated correctly (no commas)?
Y
N
2. Did the author use reduced relative clauses (participle phrases) to improve conciseness?
Y
N
3. Is backshifting applied correctly in all reported speech instances?
Y
N
Nuance & Stance
4. Do the reporting verbs accurately reflect the author's likely intention (e.g., suggests vs. demonstrates)?
Y
N
5. Is there a clear analytical voice (e.g., grouping authors or showing conflict) rather than just a list of summaries?
Y
N
Qualitative Feedback
One area of strength:
One specific suggestion for improvement:
